Homicide
In 1827, a slave named Ambrose escaped from his owner Berryman Burger. Like most runaways, Ambrose did not make the dangerous trek north but remained in the area, a practice called ‘lying out.’ In most cases, such slaves kept a low profile, living off the land or from scraps gleaned from friends and compatriots in the quarter. Ambrose, however, took a different path, waging guerrilla war against slavery and local slaveholders. Over the course of more than a year he broke into barns, slaughtered hogs and poultry, pillaged smokehouses, burned outbuildings, destroyed cotton, and generally behaved like a local Robin Hood, stealing from the rich and returning to his fellow slaves. Within months, Ambrose had induced other runaways to join him, and he was regarded by local planters as a “desperate character ... capable of any act of villainy” who should be killed on sight.
Early in the morning of September 24, 1828, a local white man, Kirkland Harmon, surprised Ambrose in his camp and gunned him down as he rose. Ambrose winced as the buckshot “enter[ed] his back loins & hips,” and he bled out on the ground. His one-man rebellion was effectively over. Without the coroner’s inquest convened over his body, however, we would know nothing of his rebellion; the record of his death is the only record we have of his life. How many Ambroses were there? It is hard to know. To its credit, Ambrose’s band picked up his mantle and continued to operate in the area as a plague to local planters.
I was not surprised to learn that such local resistance was quashed and that slaves like Ambrose were routinely murdered. I was surprised to learn how often the coroner responded. In her WPA interview, the former slave Mittie Freeman remembered the coroner as “that fellow that comes running fast when somebody gets killed,” and the coroner is mentioned in quite a few of the most famous slave narratives, including those by Frederick Douglass and William Wells Brown. The coroner was often the only magistrate mentioned because he was the only ‘outside’ law the slaves ever saw. We will never know precisely how many enslavers murdered their slaves and effortlessly covered it up. But in cases where the murderer was someone other than the enslaver, or where the enslaver failed to cover it up, there usually was an investigation, at the very least because property had been destroyed, and someone expected compensation.
Reflecting on the South he was forced to flee because of his Unionism, John Aughey noted: “Of course the laws which exist in every state against the murder or torturing of slaves are about as well observed as might be laws enacted by wolves against sheep-murder.” But in the coroners’ inquest there was actually a subtle game of community standards going on. Standing over the body of a slave and surveying the grim damage, a coroner’s jury was often perfectly comfortable recommending that a white be indicted. And at coroner’s inquests slaves were allowed to testify. The actual jury nullification came later, in the courtroom, when the mangled body was not actually present and the murderer was let off. But by then he had been held up to public scrutiny; his judgment and decency had been questioned publicly and legally. It is less than justice, but it is not nothing, a fact which slaves themselves recognized. When the coroner came a-runnin’, many slaves thought he might bring justice with him from some far off, saner place. And in his own Narrative, Frederick Douglass tells the story of an unnamed slave girl whose mistress “pounded in her skull” with a piece of firewood because she allowed a baby to cry uncontrollably and wake the household. “I will not say that this murder most foul produced no sensation. It did produce a sensation. A warrant was issued for the arrest of Mrs. Hicks, but incredible to tell, for some reason or other, that warrant was never served, and she not only escaped condign punishment, but the pain and mortification as well of being arraigned before a court of justice.” It is hard to believe that for all he’d seen of the institution of slavery, Douglass still thought it capable of any justice at all.
What does not make it into many of the slave narratives, including Douglass’s, is the violence that existed within the slave community. Enslavement does not magically transform all who endure it into savvy, self-sustaining freedom-fighters. If we are going to grant the enslaved their full humanity we must grant that, like any other group of people, they occasionally fought, fornicated, and got into petty disputes that sometimes took a murderous turn. To be sure, as historian Steven Hahn has noted, the slave quarter produced one of the most radical and transformative politics ever seen in America, a politics that produced Nat Turner and Frederick Douglass and finally brought down a $3.5 billion dollar interest. But in coroners reports we get a glimpse of the violence that existed within the slave community that we knew had to be there. Thus did the enslaved of the Haile plantation turn their children over to Tamer, the enslaved nurse, on their way out to the fields, little knowing that she liked to punish the children by tying them too close to a fire, a practice that was only discovered when she finally cooked one of them to death. Or take the case of an enslaved man named Dick who became so jealous that he pulled a log from a fire and murdered the man who was staying in the cabin of a woman he wanted to sleep with.
Today, the typical homicide in the United States involves one man shooting another, and this is equally true in the CSI:Dixie database. Comparatively speaking, the CSI:D sample has a higher percentage of male victims and a lower percentage of gun use. Today firearms are used in 68% of American homicides; in the CSI:D sample guns are used 52% of the time. Today 77% of homicide victims are male; in the CSI:D sample 88% are male (and virtually all of the perpetrators are men). Put bluntly, in the nineteenth century south, violent death was a more exclusively male province, and Death had more faces.
Interestingly, though, in the CSI:D database virtually none of the gun-related homicides are related to robbery. Most are the product of the highly combustible combination of anger and alcohol. The last words of J. Edward Sims were typical: “Shoot you damed cowardly son of a Bitch.” Or take this poignant exchange:
Tom Rutland (firing): “I will kill you, you son of a bitch.”
William Padgett (bleeding): “You have already.”
In the strange alchemy of the male brain, friends became mortal enemies in an instant, often over trivialities. “How in the hell did you Gap up My ax?” Gus Settler demanded to know of Allen Holmes in March 1882. I hardly know what a gapped-up axe looks like, but I do know that returning a borrowed tool in less than satisfactory condition is no grounds for murder. Settler disagreed and shot Holmes dead.
Infanticide
Life in the Faulknerian world of CSI:D was especially cheap for children. Catherine Berry, a domestic in the R. C. Poole household, was told that she would be terminated if she was indeed pregnant. In an awful feat of endurance, she continued with her chores until, doubled over with pain, she snuck away to give birth in the potato shed. Reeling from the loss of blood, she still managed to strangle the baby and fling it into the Pacolet River, where it washed up at the feet of some fishermen. When Peggy Bedenbaugh felt her first contractions, she went out to a corner of the yard, gave birth in a hole, and covered the baby over with dirt. Luly Collins threw her baby down a well. Nancy Owens swept hers under a brush pile. All had denied for months that they were in the “family way”; all had killed the evidence; all were indicted for murder.
Or take the case of Jane Arnold. On September 7, 1857, Brazeal Cox and his wife found sixteen-year-old Jane Arnold stretched out on the ground with a baby beside her, bleeding from its umbilical cord. When Arnold became aware of the couple she called out to Mrs. Cox, who wrapped the dying infant in Arnold’s apron and took it into the Arnold home. Mrs. Cox then returned and asked the girl why she hadn’t given birth indoors. Because her daddy was “doging” her, she said, and had cast her from the house. “She seemed to be grieving,” Cox told the coroner in a model of understatement, “but [I] don’t know what for, whether on the part of her dead child or the abuse of her father.”
Three years later, at four in the morning, a shivering Jane Arnold knocked at the door of a neighboring farm. She was cold and unkempt, but she couldn’t make up her mind to stay. Instead she returned to the abandoned schoolhouse where she had taken her latest baby, born in the middle of the road, to die of exposure.
The coroners’ office reveals a world where men force women into sex and women pay the price for it, in embarrassing pregnancies, social stigma, and the occasionally desperate attempt to cover up the evidence. In 1829 a fire in Thomas Welsh’s smoke-house revealed a small cubby in which a full term child had been secreted in a jar of lime. It is impossible to know whether this was an infanticide or a child who had been stillborn. Regardless the mother was covering up something. Occasionally that something was an interracial liaison. More often it was simply a pregnancy out-of-wedlock. Many of the cases reveal that the women had been trying for some time to induce an abortion. ‘Home remedies’ for pregnancy mentioned in the CSI:D sample include savin powder mixed with turpentine, red bark bay tea, and the ashes of dried corn cobs. In this sense some of the infanticides might be considered extremely late-term abortions. One unnamed mother, for instance, gave birth to a stillborn child who bore unmistakable marks of abuse en utero. M. Lipscomb was found doubled over a fence having apparently bled out in a botched, self-induced abortion.
Almost sadder is the number of women who were held to account for the ‘murder’ of infants who had most likely died of crib death or SIDS. Often sent back to the cotton field within days of giving birth, enslaved mothers were understandably exhausted, and they often slept with their infants so they could breast feed in a haze and go back to sleep. When they occasionally awoke to dead babies, they were unfortunately as susceptible as their doctors and enslavers to believe that they had smothered their children in their sleep, a phenomenon which only enhanced their reputation as uncaring and unnatural mothers.
NEXT: Suicide
Murder Cases Tried in South Carolina, 1887-1900
Year | Number of Homicides Tried | Not Guilty Verdicts | Guilty Verdicts | Cases Dismissed or Continued | Percentage Found Guilty |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1887 | 79 | 54 | 11 | 14 | 13.9% |
1888 | 117 | 61 | 36 | 20 | 30.1% |
1889 | 120 | 69 | 30 | 21 | 25.0% |
1890 | incomplete returns | - | - | - | - |
1891 | 151 | 76 | 46 | 29 | 30.0% |
1892 | incomplete returns | - | - | - | - |
1893 | incomplete returns | - | - | - | - |
1894 | incomplete returns | - | - | - | - |
1895 | 210 | 112 | 67 | 31 | 31.9% |
1896 | 201 | 110 | 67 | 24 | 33.3% |
1897 | 215 | 120 | 64 | 31 | 29.7% |
1898 | 248 | 105 | 96 | 47 | 44.0% |
1899 | 205 | 83 | 97 | 35 | 47.3% |
1900 | 224 | 127 | 71 | 26 | 31.7% |
Credit: John Hammond Moore, Carnival of Blood: Dueling, Lynching, and Murder in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 130-131, taken from Reports and Resolutions of the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina
Homicide Inquests
Name | Deceased Description | Date | Inquest Location | Death Method | Inquest Finding |
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Eldred Glover | March 2, 1852 | at the house of John Doby, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said Eldred Glover came to his Death . . .by a pistol ball passing through the abdomen fired from a pistol in the hand of Dr. Walker Samuel |
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Archibald Nicholson | July 26, 1869 | at the residence of Archibald Nicholson, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say, that the said deceased came to his death by a blow or lick inflicted on the side of the head, at Mount Croghan in the County aforesaid on the 24h day of July, A.D. 1869 with a Gun in the hands of Jacob Brewer |
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Johnson Peterson | March 9, 1892 | at Deny[?] S.C., Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do Say - that this Jury of inquest believes that the Said Johnson Peterson Came to his death ... by a gun Shot wound Said wound being Made as we believe by a pistol in the hands of Pickens Smith |
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Griff Zimmerman | October 9, 1899 | at Johnston Township, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their Oaths do Say: That at the house of Millege Burton on the land of J.T. Strother . . . Griff Zimmerman was killed by a pistol Shot by the hands of Millege Burton |
|
Teague Tillman | October 2, 1899 | at the plantation of Thos. H. Ramsford, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their Oaths do Say: That Teague Tillman came to his death . . . by pistol in the hands of Will Perminter |
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W. Brooker Toney | August 12, 1878 | at E. C. House, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that W.B. Toney came to his death by Pistol Shots from the Hands of James Booth Benjamin Booth & Marion Booth |
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Ben Lowman | September 14, 1894 | at W.[?] L. Rawls Mills, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say, that the said Ben Lowman came to his death from a pistol shot wound at the hands of Sam Shealy |
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Huey A Stevenson | Fairfield County, SC | pistol |
We the Jury [?] to hold an inquisition over the body of Huey A Stevenson find that the deceased came to his death form a pistol shot wound inflicted by Johnson Cameron[.] |
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John Gary Baker | July 20, 1936 | at Augelus, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that John G. Baker received in Chesterfield County a mortal wound by Pistol shot in the hands of Walter Jowers |
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James Anders | November 28, 1881 | at M. B. Ander's, Greenville County, SC | pistol |
he came to his death by the Shooting of some kind of fire arms two holes in his Head and one in the lore part of his Bowels . . .he was shot by a pistol from the hand of one Bengeman |
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Henry Mobley | December 11, 1899 | at Johnston, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their Oaths, do Say: That Henry Mobley came to his death . . . by a pistol shot. . . fired by the hands of Mark Clark |
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Thomas Booth | August 23, 1878 | at E. C. House, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do Say that the said Thos Booths. . .came to his death by pistol Shots from the hands of parties unknown |
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Arthur Morris | June 20, 1898 | at M. W Clarks, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their Oaths do say that Arthur Morris Came to his death by a pistol fired by and in the hand of Henry Jeff |
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Dave Parkman | December 16, 1897 | at Cheatham place, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say, that Dave Parkman was killed by a pistol shot in the hands of Solomon Moss |
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J. Edward Sims | March 2, 1855 | at the house of Doct. James Gages, Union County, SC | pistol |
upon their oathes do say. . . that the aforesaid N R E Mayer Feloniously did with a Pistol against the Peace & dignity of the state aforesaid near the printing office in unvile shoot & Killed the said J Edward Sims |
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William Martin | May 24, 1891 | on the premises of W. E. Friday, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the deceased Wm Martin came to his death from a pistol shot wound and that Augustus Dearing firered the pistol |
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Thomas Phearby | September 1, 1882 | on the Mill's Gap Road, Spartanburg County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that said Thomas Phearby ... came to his death from Pistol show wound in the back of his head received from a pistol in the hand of John H. Foster |
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Samuel D. Owings | November 12, 1869 | Laurens County, SC | pistol | ||
Mack Kirkland | colored man | October 31, 1868 | at Camden, Camden, S.C., Kershaw County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said Mac Kirkland came to his death on Main Street in the town of Camden ... from wounds in the breast from a pistol fired ... by one William Killz |
James Ramsey | December 12, 1869 | at the residence of Andrew Ramsay Sr, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said deceased came to his death by the discharge of a pistol in the hands of Wm Murrell Jr loaded with leaden bullets which bullets entered the left side |
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Seabrook Leak | March 24, 1870 | at Tumbling Shoals, Laurens County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do Say that the said Seabrook Leak came to his Death on the twenty third day of March 1870 Near Tumbling Shoals Laurens County by a Pistol Shot wound from hands of Pinkney Wilson |
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Eldridge Brown | August 5, 1837 | in Camden, Kershaw County, SC | pistol |
do say upon their oath that the said Eldridge Brown came to his death by a ball or balls shot from a pistol by Mr. F. S. Bronson in a encounter with that gentleman |
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Leroy Boan | May 22, 1934 | at Pageland, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths, do say: He came to his death by Gun shot wound in the hand of Brutus Cagle |
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Samuel Posey | October 21, 1860 | at P. B. McDaniels, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon there oath do say that the said Sam Posey came to his death by a Pistol shots in the hand of Henry Williams. . .four balls taken affect |
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Robert Harris | September 13, 1870 | at Laurensville, Washington Ferguson's house, Laurens County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the aforesaid Robert Harris came to his death on this 5th Sept. 1870 at the house of Washington Ferguson, in County and State aforesaid, by a pistol shot from a pistol held in the hands of Jeff Fuller. |
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Carey Ashley | October 11, 1879 | at J W Wises[?] plantation, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said Cary Ashley came to his death. . .from a pistol shot wound from the hands of Benjamin L. Jones |
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David Deason | December 4, 1934 | at Pageland, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that David Deason received in Chesterfield County a mortal wound by Pistol in the hands of Bruce Roue on the 2nd day of December 1934, and that from such mortal wound deceased died in Charlotte Sanitarium on December 3rd 1934. |
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Thomas O'Donald | September 13, 1869 | at Dr. John E. Padgetts, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say That the said Thomas O'Donald came to his death . . .from Pistol shot wounds. . .having been inflicted by some person or persons to the Jurors unknown |
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William Cloud | July 8, 1851 | at the Spaun[?] Hotel, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say, that the said deceased was killed by a pistol shot in the bar room of H.R. Spaun, by the hands of Philip Goode |
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J. H. Christian | July 21, 1856 | in the village of Edgefield in Room No 11, in B. J. Ryans Hotel, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say, that the deceased J.[?] H. Christian came to his death by the discharge of a pistol in the hands of G.[?] D. Tilman |
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John E. Elsmore | November 28, 1869 | at the house of John E. Elsmore, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say That he came to his death from the effect of a blow or blows on his head inflicted by the hands of Wm Pickens Elsmore with a Pistol |
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Thomas W. Harrison | November 23, 1860 | At Pendleton, Anderson County, SC | pistol |
do say that the deceased was killed by a pistol shot, fired by Francisco Tapapso[?], at Pendelton. |
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Jasper Deal | January 18, 1880 | at Greenville, Greenville County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that . . .the said Jasper Deal came to his death from the effect of a pistol shot wound in the hands of Henry Townsend. The ball entering the head just below the left eyebrow and passing directly through the brain to the back of the head. |
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Lewis | negro man, boy | March 14, 1861 | at Charles Hammonds Brickyard, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon there oats do say that the said Lewis did come to his death. . .By the discharge of a pistol on Sunday the tenth ist in hands of Benja[?] Glanton |
Isaac Boseley | July 5, 1880 | at Ridge Spring, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oath aforesaid, do say, that the aforesaid Isaack Boseley came to his death by a gun Shot wound from a Pistol in the hands of one Peter Ramage |
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Keal Johnson | colourd man | October 20, 1866 | at J.M. Proctors Residence, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon there Oaths do say that he came to his death. . .by a Pistol shot from the hands of G.J. Smith entering the left side of the mouth and came out at the back side of his head |
Andrew Caldwell | at Rockton, Fairfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their Oaths do say that the deceased came to his death on the 21st day of June 1889 near Rockton . . . by a gun shot wound in the head inflicted by parties to us unknown. |
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J. M. King | September 29, 1913 | at McBee, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths, do say: Jm King came to his death from pistol shot wounds in the Hands of Jim Davis |
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James Bledsoe | May 15, 1893 | at Dr D.P. Lalsrones[?] Residence, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said James Bledsoe aforesaid came to his death from the effects of Pistol shot wounds at the hands of Capers Thomas |
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Eugene McCarty | May 11, 1861 | at Edgefield Court house, Edgefield County, SC | pistol |
upon there oaths do say that the said Eugene McCarty the deceased came to his death this day by a wound received from a pistol in the hands of William A Murrell |
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James Keenan | February 21, 1865 | at Union Court House, Union County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the deceased was killed by a bullet discharged from a pistol in the house of Dr. John P. Thomas . . .in the Jail of Union District |
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Jor.[?] Seabrook | JUST TESTIMONY, Fairfield County, SC | pistol | |||
Marten Lowery | January 20, 1913 | at Liza Lowery's, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths, do say: That the said Mart Lowery came to his death from a pistol shot wound in the hand of Henry McKinzy |
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Jack | slave | September 4, 1862 | at Mrs. Ann Johnson's residence, Anderson County, SC | pistol |
do say that the said Jack did come to his death from a pistol shot inflicted by George T. Smith the overseer of Mrs. Ann Johnson. . .the act was done by him intentionally for disobeience. |
Poole Croft | colored man | September 9, 1880 | at Barksdale Church, Greenville County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that the said Poole Croft came to his death . . . by means of a pistol in the hands of Jefferson D. Gilreath by misfortune and contrary[?] [?] will in manner and found aforesaid did kill & slay |
Robert H. Holliday | January 20, 1874 | at Calhoun, Anderson County, SC | pistol |
do say that?Robert Holliday was wounded by a pistol shot, inflicted by a pistol in the hands of John Henry Vermillion; of which wound said Robert Holliday did die?John Henry Vermillion then and there maliciously did kill. |
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Henry Long | January 7, 1834 | Union County, SC | pistol |
do say upon their oaths that one Saml P Bailey of Said District not having the fear of God Before his Eyes But moved by the instigation of the Devil did . . .in the House or Store of James R. Nathens . . .with a Pistol wound & Kill the said Henry Long |
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Hattie Threatt McManus | February 1, 1934 | at Dudley, Chesterfield County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths, do say: Hattie Threatt McManus came to her death by Gun shot wound in the hands of J. T. McManus |
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Perry Cox | October 30, 1880 | at Mrs. Ellen Goldsmiths Place, Greenville County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that Perry Cox here lying dead in our view came to his death . . .from gun or pistol shots from the hands of unknown parties |
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Isaac Salter | June 7, 1872 | at the old Colemans Quarter, Laurens County, SC | pistol |
upon their oaths do say that Isaac Salter came to his death, upon their oaths do sayeth by a pistol shot in the hands of Amos Anderson |